Makers of Modern Chemistry

The word "alchemy" brings to mind images of pseudo-scientists huddling over bowls of liquids, mixing strange potions and dabbling in the occult. However, the true goal of alchemy was nothing less than the transmutation of the "base" (i.e., more reactive) metals into gold. Alchemists also sought a single cure for all diseases and a way to prolong life indefinitely. The fantastic nature of these goals, not to mention their apparent impossibility, has overshadowed the very real contributions that alchemy has made to modern science, especially chemistry and medicine.

The greatest of all Arab alchemists was Jabir ibn Hayyan, known to the West by his Latinized name of Geber. Flourishing in the late Eighth and early Ninth Century, very little is known about his life and a great deal of heated debate still surrounds which of the writings attributed to him are actually his, as opposed to those done by later authors. The works of the Jabir cover all subjects including philosophy, linguistics, astrology, magic, cosmology, theology, metaphysics, the liberal arts, medicine, agriculture, and technology; but alchemy predominates. In his treatises on this subject, Jabir provided a rational basis for the development of chemistry and pharmacy.

Despite its later nefarious reputation, medireview (medieval) alchemy had a basis in contemporary scientific thought, particularly in the Aristotelian theory of the composition of matter. Aristotle taught that all matter - from wood, to rocks, to plants and human beings - was composed of four irreducible elements: water, earth, fire, and air. The ratios among these four elements determined its final form. Aristotle maintained that changing the ratio inherent in an object changed its form. Hence, wood burned because the application of heat caused its fire component to become dominant. It then became ash because, in the process of burning, its fire component was consumed, leaving behind a substance that was primarily composed of earth.
Later theorists, particularly in Egypt and China, expanded this idea further. Since the ratio of an object determined its composition, it was possible to change baser metals into gold, the "purest" of metals, by changing their composition. Chinese alchemists postulated and sought for a substance, the "Philosopher's Stone", that would accomplish this. Egyptian alchemists refined this further, maintaining that there was an "Elixir of Life" that could cure all diseases and extend life.

With the expansion of Islam in the seventh century and the explosion of commerce and international communication, Arab thinkers came into contact with Greek, Egyptian and Chinese alchemical theories. Jabir modified the Aristotelian concept of four elements by postulating that all metals were composed of two immediate components: sulfur and mercury. He also adopted the Chinese alchemists' concept of a "Philosopher's Stone" and the Egyptian "Elixir of Life" combining them into a single entity.

Arab alchemists undertook their search for these universal substances in a careful scientific manner. Jabir's writings describe methods, for evaporation, filtration, sublimation, melting, distillation, calcination and crystallization. At least two treatises attributed to him lay down the basic rules for conducting, recording and verifying experiments.

Jabir was also the first to describe the preparation of cinnabar, arsenious oxide, alum, alkalis, antimony, saltpeter, mercury oxide and lead acetate. He also determined that a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acid (aqua regia) would dissolve gold. Later, Arab alchemists discovered and learned uses for other important chemical substances, such as mineral acids, bismuth, phosphorous, zinc, ammonia and many compounds of mercury, as well as additional methods for testing and purifying gold.

Since many early alchemists were also physicians, the application of alchemical principles and methods were applied to pharmaceuticals. The result was the introduction of a large number of new drugs and compounds including senna, camphor, sandalwood, musk, myrrh, cassia, tamarind, nutmeg, cloves, aconite, and ambergris. Ar-Razi, the greatest clinician of Islamic medicine, was originally trained as an alchemist. As a result of his early studies, he introduced mercurial compounds for the treatment of disease. Ibn Sina, similarly grounded in alchemical principles, adapted Jabir's methods for alchemical experimentation and used them as the basis for his own rules to determine the efficacy of new pharmaceuticals.

While they failed to achieve their ultimate goals of transforming metal into gold or living an eternal life, the impact of Arab alchemists was profound. Jabir's works on alchemy were translated into Latin and made their way into Europe. For centuries they served as the ultimate authority to European scientists, including Arnold of Villanova (1240-1313), Roger Bacon (1214-94), and Albertus Magnus (1193-1280). In the process, many of the basic terms of chemistry and pharmacy, e.g., alkali, aldehyde, syrup, julep, and, of course, alchemy, itself, were introduced into European languages a testimony to the wide-ranging contributions of these early Arab scientists.


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