Kitab Minhajus Sunnah

Kitab Minhajus Sunnah adalah sebuah kitab yang telah mendapatkan pujian dari banyak ulama. Mereka menganjurkan untuk membaca kitab tersebut dan memilikinya. Di antara mereka adalah: Al-’Allamah Al-Imam Ibnu Qayyim Al-Jauziyyah, Al-Hafizh Ibnu Katsir, Al-Imam Muhammad Asy-Syaukani, Asy-Syaikh ‘Abdurrahman bin Hasan, Samahatusy Syaikh ‘Abdul ‘Aziz bin Baz, dan Al-Lajnah Ad-Dha’imah lil Ifta’ (Dewan Fatwa Kerajaan Saudi Arabia).

Asy-Syaikh ‘Abdurrahman bin Hasan berkata sebagaimana yang tercantum di dalam fatwa beliau yang juga dibarengkan penerbitannya dalam kitab ini (Ringkasan Minhajus Sunnah):

“Ibnul Muthahhir telah menulis satu kitab yang membela kelompok ini (Syi’ah). Dia menyebutkan banyak kesyirikan dan kesesatan kelompoknya. Lalu Syaikhul Islam Ibnu Taimiyah membantahnya dalam kitab beliau yang berjudul Minhajus Sunnah dalam dua jilid besar. Sehingga, akhirnya kitab ini menjadi bendera bagi para ahli tauhid dan menjadi hujjah terhadap ahlul bid’ah yang menyimpang. Semoga Allah merahmati Syaikhul Islam. Beliau telah menenangkan Ahlus Sunnah dengan bantahan beliau terhadap para pelaku bid’ah.”


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Wadi Al-Quff

OPHTHALMOLOGY AND SURGERY

• 

• Blindness was one of the leading causes of disability throughout the Islamic Empire, which is why ophthalmology was a huge emphasis
• considerable advancement in knowledge over that in the Greco-Roman treatises preserved today
• 9th century the physician-translator Hunayn ibn Ishaq wrote monographs on ophthalmology, including the influential Ten Treatises on the Eye
• Untreated cataract result in blindness
• `Ammar ibn `Ali al-Mawsili
• He insisted he could cure a cataract by sticking in a hollow needle and sucking it out
• Generally accepted method – Couching
• Success rate 4/10
• pushing the lens of the eye out of the way by inserting into the eye a needle or probe through the edge of the cornea
• Infection and glaucoma were the major causes for failure
• trachoma, the major cause of blindness
• treated by averting the eyelid and scraping the interior with a selection of scrapers
• they developed
• Surgery
• Surgical chapter from the 10th-century medical encyclopedia composed in Spain by al-Zahrawi.
• Al-Zahrawi divided his discourse on surgery into three parts: on cautery, on incisions and bloodletting, and on bone setting
• included in it copious illustrations and descriptions of instruments
• In the 13th century, Ibn al-Quff, composed a specialized surgical manual - omitted all ophthalmologic procedures because he considered these the province of a specialist.
• Nearly all the other general discussions of surgery did include some ophthalmologic practices, though not with the detail and thoroughness evident in the monographs devoted solely to ophthalmology.

sumber dari: medievalarabicmedicineproject.blogspot.com

The Viaticum

Ibn Al Jazzar wrote a number of books. They deal with grammar, history, jurisprudence, prosody, etc. Many of these books, quoted by different authors are lost. The most important book of Ibn Al Jazzar is Zad Al Mussafir (The Viaticum). Translated into Latin, Greek and Hebrew, it has been copied, recopied, and printed in France and Italy in the sixteenth century. It was adopted and popularized in Europe as a book for a classical education in medicine. This book is a compilation as the Canon of Avicenna, a mixture of medicine and philosophy. Avicenna was not a medical practitioner, but Ibn Al Jazzar was, and his book was useful.

It is a medicine handbook from head to feet, designed for clinical teaching. We find neither anatomy nor philosophy. There are lessons written after the course, as noted by the author in the conclusion of his book. This can be seen by the repetitions found in them. The author names the disease, lists the known symptoms, gives the treatment and sometime indicates the prognosis. He often cited in reference the names of foreign authors, as if to give importance to his subject, or for intellectual integrity to justify the loans.

As al-Razi Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, preceded him by a few decades and as Ibn Al Jazzar has adopted in the Viaticum the same style as "El Hawi" (The Continent: who voluntarily abstain from carnal pleasures) of al-Razi but more elaborate and more concise, we can ask yourself if he did not have very early this book in hands. This is unlikely, because in "The Viaticum" he does not separate measles from smallpox, which was the innovation of al-Razi. And among the physicians whom he often refers such Galen, Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Refus, Tridon, Fergorius, Aristotle and Ibn Suleiman Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, he does not mention al-Razi. Books of these authors must have existed in Tunisia at that time. Tunisia was in constant contact with Rome, Athens and Byzantium by the sheer size of its economy, and the position of Tunisia in the midst of the Mediterranean Sea.

We can not speak of Ibn Al Jazzar without mentioning the translator of his books: Constantine the African.

His major work was Zād al-Musāfir.

He also had some books on geriatric medicine and health of elderly (Kitāb Ṭibb al-Mashāyikh)[2] or (Ṭibb al-Mashāyikh wa-ḥifẓ ṣiḥḥatihim).[3] Also a book on sleep disorders and another one on forgetfulness and how to strengthen memory (Kitāb al-Nisyān wa-Ṭuruq Taqwiyat al-Dhākira)[4][5] and a Treatise on causes of mortality (Risāla fī Asbāb al-Wafāh).[2]

Also he had other books on pediatrics, fevers, sexual disorders, medicine of the poor,[6] therapeutics, vaticum, coryza, stomach disorders, leprosy, separate drugs, compound drugs, and this is in addition to his books in other areas of science, e.g., history, animals and literature.

sumber dari: en.wikipedia.org

Ibn Al Jazzar -wikipedia

Ahmed Ben Jaafar Ben Brahim Ibn Al Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (c. 895 – c. 979) (Arabic: أبو جعفر أحمد بن أبي خالد بن الجزار القيرواني‎), was an influential 10th-century Muslim physician who became famous for his writings on Islamic medicine. He was born in Qayrawan in modern-day Tunisia.^[1] He was known in Europe by the Latinized name Algizar.

We know the biography of Ibn Al Jazzar only by an Andalusian physician Ibn Joljol and he only knew it by his student Ibn Bariq, who went to Qayrawan, Tunisia to learn medicine. The writers of Tabakates or "classes of famous men" generally considered writing only for Faquih, the benefactors and the saints. The information we have about Ibn Al Jazzar are second hand, they are either incomplete, or controversial.
“Ahmed Ben Jaafar Ben Brahim Ibn Al Jazzar” was born in Qayrawan around 895, and died around 979. He lived about 84 years. Married he would not let childs. He had learned the Koran at kuttab in his youth, grammar, theology, fiqh and history at the mosque Okba Ibn Nafaa. He had learned medicine from his father and his uncle that were physicians, and from Ishaq Ibn Suleiman (Isaac Ben Salomon), a physician in Qayrawan.

The existence of a hospital in Kairouan is not proven. Teaching is provided by the doctors themselves at home. This is the case of Ibn Al Jazzar. He said himself in the conclusion of his book "Zad Al Mussafir (viaticum), he would be available at home for his students at the end of its daily consultation.

The teaching was oral. The paper was not widely spread in the ninth century, the scrolls were rare and expensive. Ibn Al Jazzar had a library rich of 25 quintals, as it seems. This figure seems exaggerated. The quintal at the time amounted to 50 kg according to some and 25 kg according to others. These books were not all about medicine, but also of other disciplines.

Ibn Al Jazzar was calm and quiet. He did not attend funerals or weddings, and did not take part in festivities. He had great respect ofhimself. He avoided compromises, did not attend the court and members of the regime, thus taking on Fouqaha example of the time. This may explain the fact that when he treated the son of Cadhi Al Nooman, he refused to receive as a gift a costume of 300 mithkals. It is also by respect of the Emir that he had not realized his desire to visit Andalusia, the relationship between the two governments of Mahdia and Cordoba were tense. It is also by respect for the Emir that he did not begin his pilgrimage to Mecca in spite of his strong desire to do so. The Emir was Shia and for ceremonial purposes and policies, he creates barriers to pilgrims and forced them to pass through Mahdia and pay a toll.

But he went every Friday to Mahdia to the uncle of the Emir El Moez Lidin Allah, which he was bound by friendship. During the heat of the summer, he went to Monastir and lived in a ribat with valiant soldiers who watched the boundaries. Ibn Al Jazzar preparing himself the medicines and had an assistant serve them who stood in the vestibule of the house, and who collected the fees of the consultations. We do not know the amount of a consultation or a visit at his home, but we know that at his death Ibn Al Jazzar left 24000 gold dinars. The Aghlabid dinar weighed 4.20 grams.


sumber dari: en.wikipedia.org

Allergies and fever

Al-Razi's Recueil des traités de médecine translated by Gerard of Cremona, second half of 13th century

Razi is also known for having discovered "allergic asthma," and was the first physician ever to write articles on allergy and immunology. In the Sense of Smelling he explains the occurrence of rhinitis after smelling a rose during the Spring: Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Rhinitis When Smelling Roses in Spring. In this article he discusses seasonal rhinitis, which is the same as allergic asthma or hay fever. Razi was the first to realize that fever is a natural defense mechanism, the body's way of fighting disease.

Pharmacy

Razi contributed in many ways to the early practice of pharmacy by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of 'mercurial ointments' and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.

Ethics of medicine

On a professional level, Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and "cures". At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician.
He also wrote the following on medical ethics:

"The doctor's aim is to do good, even to our enemies, so much more to our friends, and my profession forbids us to do harm to our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and welfare of the human race, and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous remedies."^[14]

sumber dari: en.academic.ru

Ibn al-Quff -wikipedia

Amīn-ad-Daula Abu-'l-Faraǧ ibn Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq Ibn al-Quff al-Karaki (Arabic: أمين الدولة أبو الفرج بن يعقوب بن إسحاق بن القف الكركي‎; 1233 AD – 1286 AD) was an Arab physician and surgeon and author of the earliest medieval Arabic treatise intended solely for surgeons.^[1]

Ibn al-Quff was born in the city of Al Karak (in modern-day Jordan). His father was Muwaffaq al-Dīn Yaʿqūb and was a Christian Arab. His father had a good job opportunity and moved his family to Sarkhad in Syria, where Ibn al-Quff was tutored by Ibn Abi Uṣaybiʿah who introduced him to the medical studies. He studied with Ibn Abi Uṣaybiʿah and learned a lot of medical information, read many biographies on earlier doctors, and spent a large amount of time meditating on the material he studied and learned. Ibn al-Quff ended up moving to Damascus where he improved his knowledge and studied metaphysics, philosophy, medicine, natural sciences, and mathematics. It is not completely clear as to who was teaching him all of this material but regardless he learned a large amount of information which would be very beneficial for his career. After he had studied for a while and proved he was a good knowledgeable physician and surgeon he was given the job of physician-surgeon in the army which was stationed in Jordan.^[2] It was while serving in the army where he really became well known as a physician and a surgeon. His reputation became widespread in the Muslim empire for being a Christian Arab and actually caring for his patients and conducting his work with honesty.^[3] After his time of popularity died down he was sent to Damascus and remained there teaching until his death at the age of fifty-two.^[4]

During his time in Jordan being a physician-surgeon Ibn al-Quff was writing many books and teaching people. He was actually more well known as a writer and educator on medical topics than being a doctor. He wrote at least ten commentaries and books during his lifetime. Seven of these works are known to exist today whether fragments or the entire work. One of his allegedly most famous works was a commentary on Ishārāt of Ibn Sīnā but there is no evidence of this today, it is assumed to have gone missing or Ibn al-Quff never finished it and produced it. Some of his most well known surviving works are listed below with a brief description.

• Kitāb al-ʻUmda fi 'l-ǧirāḥa (كتاب العمدة في الجراحة) or Basics in the Art of Surgery: a general medical manual covering anatomy and drugs therapy as well as surgical care, concentrating on wounds and tumors, however he excluded ophthalmology as he considered it to be a specialty with its own technical literature.^[1] The work was published in Hyderabad, India in 1937. This was by far the largest Arabic text on surgery during the entire medieval period. In this book Ibn al-Quff explained the connections between arteries and veins which was the earliest description of what would be known as capillaries. He did this work before the invention of a microscope and also explained how valves worked and the direction they opened and closed.

• Al-Shafi al-Tibb (The Comprehensive of the Healing Arts): His first medical encyclopedia, completed early 1272 AD.

• Jāmiʻ al-gharaḍ fī ḥifẓ al-ṣiḥḥah wa-dafʻ al-maraḍ (جامع الغرض في حفظ الصحة ودفع المرض): on preventive medicine and the preservation of health in 60 chapters, completed around 1275 AD. It is extant in several manuscripts.

• Al-usul fi sarh al-fusul: A two-volume commentary of the works of Hippocrates.

• Risala fi manafi al-a da: A treatise on the anatomy of the body's organs.

• Zubad at-Tabib: A book with advice for practicing physicians.

• Sarh al-Kulliyat: A commentary on Avicenna's work Qanun fi t-Tibb.

sumber dari: en.wikipedia.org

Smallpox vs. measles

Epidemics such as Smallpox and Measles were studied in detail by Al-Razi

"Smallpox appears when blood 'boils' and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as 'bubbles found in wine' - (as blisters) - ... this disease can also occur at other times - (meaning: not only during childhood) -. The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic."

This diagnosis is acknowledged by the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911), which states: "The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the 9th-century Persian physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment."

Razi's book: al-Judari wa al-Hasbah (On Smallpox and Measles) was the first book describing smallpox and measles as distinct diseases. It was translated more than a dozen times into Latin and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation show Razi's medical methods. For example:

"The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breath and cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with 'measles' than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with a very pronounced redness of the gums."


sumber dari: en.academic.ru

hailed from a Israelite family

This accomplished Hakim was the tutor of the unparalleled physician Zakariya al-Razi. Luck favoured the disciple more than the teacher in terms of celebrity. As compared to Razi people know very little about his teacher Ali.

Ali Bin Rabban's surname was Abu al-Hasan, the full name being Abu al-Hasan Ali Bin Sahl Rabban al-Tabari. Born in 838 C.E. his father Sahl hailed from a respectable Jew family. The nobility and sympathy inherent in his very nature soon endeared him to his countrymen so much so that they used to call him Rabban which implies "my leader".

Professionally Sahl was an extremely successful physician. He had command over the art of calligraphy too. Besides he had a deep insight into the disciplines of Astronomy, Philosophy, Mathematics and Literature. Some complicated articles of Batlemus's book al-Mijasti came to be resolved by way of Sahl's scholarly expertise, translators preceding him had failed to solve the mystery.

Ali received his education in the disciplines of Medical science and calligraphy from his able father Sahl and attained perfection in these fields. He had also mastered Syriac and Greek languages to a high degree of proficiency.

Ali hailed from a Israelite family. Since he had embraced Islam, he is classified amongst Muslirn Scholars. This family belonged to Tabristan's famous city Marv.

The fame acquired by Ali Bin Rabban did not simply account for the reason that a physician of the stature of Zakariya al-Razi was amongst his disciple. In fact the main cause behind his exaltation lies in his world-renowned treatise Firdous al-Hikmat.

Spread over seven parts, Firdous al-Hikmat is the first ever Medical encyclopaedia which incorporates all the branches of medical science in its folds. This work has been published in this century (20th century) only. Prior to this publication only five of his manuscripts were to be found scattered in libraries the world over. Dr. Mohammed Zubair Siddiqui compared and edited the manuscripts. In his preface he has provided extremely useful information regarding the book and the author and, wherever felt necessary, explanatory notes have been written to facilitate publication of this work on modern publishing standards.

Later on this unique work was published with the cooperation of English and German institutions. Following are the details of its all seven parts:

1. Part one: Kulliyat-e-Tibb. This part throws light on contemporary ideology of medical science. In that era these principles formed the basis of medical science.
2. Part two: Elucidation of the organs of the human body, rules for keeping good health and comprehensive account of certain muscular diseases.
3. Part three: Description of diet to be taken in conditions of health and disease.
4. Part four: All diseases right from head to toe. This part is of profound significance in the whole book and comprises twelve papers:

• General causes relating to eruption of diseases.
• Diseases of the head and the brain.
• Diseases relating to the eye, nose, ear, mouth and the teeth.
• Muscular diseases (paralysis and spasm).
• Diseases of the regions of the chest, throat and the lungs.
• Diseases of the abdomen. vii) Diseases of the liver.
• Diseases of gallbladder and spleen.
• Intestinal diseases.
• Different kinds of fever.
• Miscellaneous diseases- brief explanation of organs of the body.
• Examination of pulse and urine. This part is the largest in the book and is almost half the size of the whole book.

5. Part five: Description of flavour, taste and colour.
6. Part six: Drugs and poison.
7. Part seven: Deals with diverse topics. Discusses climate and astronomy. Also contains a brief mention of Indian medicine.

Though he wrote Firdous al-Hikmat in Arabic but he simultaneously translated it into Syriac. He has two more compilations to his credit namely Deen-o-Doulat and Hifdh al-Sehhat. The latter is available in manuscript-form in the library of Oxford University. Besides Medical science, he was also a master of Philosophy, Mathematics and Astronomy. He breathed his last around 870 C.E.

sumber dari: islamicchannels.net

a physician of the late Abbasid period

Ali bin Abbas al-Majusi, a physician of the late Abbasid period. This was the phase of original contributions of Arab and Muslim scholars to science, as compared to the period of translations earlier.

He wrote the first treatise on surgery, which was translated into Latin and used in European Universities. He authored “Kamilu Sina’at” or “al-Kitab al-Maliki” (The Royal), a book on medicine which was translated several times into Latin and used in European universities until the 18th century, when it was replaced by Ibn Sina’s (Avicenna) “al-Qanoun fil Tibb”.

He described the brain as the center of sensation and movement, and described spastic and flaccid paralysis in spinal cord disease. He described the spinal cord and its 31 pairs of nerves, 8 cervical,12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 3 sacral, 3 coccygeal, and a sigle nerve below the coccyx

What Did al-Majusi Write?

He wrote on the following neurologic conditions: headache, stroke, epilepsy, dementia, coma, schizophrenia, and skull fractures.

He described seven pairs of cranial nerves, each covered intra-cranially by two layers of dura, a thin intima layer containing blood vessels, and a thick layer for protection. 

sumber dari: islamicchannels.net

Al-Tabari -wikipedia

Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (Persian: محمد بن جریر طبری‎, Arabic: أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير بن يزيد الطبري‎) (224 – 310 AH; 840–923 CE) was a prominent and influential Persian^[1] scholar, historian and exegete of the Qur'an from Tabaristan, modern Mazandaran in Iran.

His most influential and best known works are his Qur'anic commentary known as Tafsir al-Tabari and his historical chronicle Tarikh al-Umam wa al-Muluk (History of nations and Kings), often referred to Tarikh al-Tabari. Al-Tabari founded his own madhhab which is usually designated by the name Jariri.

Tabari was born in Amol, Tabaristan (some twenty kilometres south of the Caspian Sea) in the winter of 838–9.^[2] He memorized the Qur'an at seven, was a qualified religious leader at eight and began to study the prophetic traditions at nine. He left home to study in A.H. 236^[3] (850–1) when he was twelve. He retained close ties to his home town. He returned at least twice, the last time in A.H. 290 (903) when his outspokenness caused some uneasiness and led to his quick departure.^[4]

He first went to Ray (Rhages), where he remained for some five years.^[5] A major teacher in Rayy was Abu Abdillah Muhammad ibn Humayd al-Razi, who had earlier taught in Baghdad but was now in his seventies.^[6] While in Ray, he also studied Muslim jurisprudence according to the Hanafi school.^[7] Among other material, ibn Humayd taught Jarir Tabari the historical works of ibn Ishaq, especially al-Sirah, his life of Muhammad.^[8] Tabari was thus introduced in youth to pre-Islamic and early Islamic history. Tabari quotes ibn Humayd frequently. We know little about Tabari's other teachers in Rayy.^[6]

Tabari then travelled to study in Baghdad under ibn Hanbal, who, however, had recently died (in late 855 or early 856).^[9] Tabari possibly made a pilgrimage prior to his first arrival in Baghdad.^[9] He left Baghdad probably in 242 A.H. (856–7)^[10] to travel through the southern cities of Basra, Kufah and Wasit.^[9] There he met a number of eminent and venerable scholars.^[10] In addition to his previous study of Hanafi law, Tabari also studied the Shafi'i, Maliki and Zahiri rites.^[11] Tabari's study of the latter school was with the founder, Dawud al-Zahiri,^[12] and Tabari hand-copied and transmitted many of his teacher's works.^[13] Tabari was, then, well-versed in four of the five remaining Sunni legal schools before founding his own independent, yet eventually extinct, school. His debates with his former teachers and classmates were known, and served as a demonstration of said independence.^[14] Notably missing from this list is the Hanbali school, the fourth largest legal school within Sunni Islam in the present era. Tabari's view of Ibn Hanbal, the school's founder, became decidedly negative later in life. Tabari did not give Ibn Hanbal's dissenting opinion any weight at all when considering the various views of jurists, stating that Ibn Hanbal had not even been a jurist at all, but merely a recorder of Hadith.^[15]

On his return to Baghdad, he took a tutoring position from the vizier Ubaydallah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan.^[16] This would have been before A.H. 244 (858) since the vizier was out of office and in exile from 244 to 248 (858–9 to 862).^[16] There is an anecdote told that Tabari had agreed to tutor for ten dinars a month, but his teaching was so effective and the boy's writing so impressive that the teacher was offered a tray of dinars and dirhams. The ever-ethical Tabari declined the offer saying he had undertaken to do his work at the specified amount and could not honourably take more.^[17] This is one of a number of stories about him declining gifts or giving gifts of equal or greater amount in return.^[17]

In his late twenties he travelled to Syria, Palestine and Egypt.^[18] In Beirut he made the highly significant connection of al-Abbas b. al-Walid b. Mazyad al-'Udhri al-Bayruti (c.169-270/785-6 to 883–4). Al-Abbas instructed Tabari in the Syrian school's variant readings of the Qur'an and transmitted through his father al-Walid the legal views of al-Awza'i, Beirut's prominent jurist from a century earlier.^{[citation needed]}
Tabari arrived in Egypt in 253H (867),^[19] and some time after 256/870 returned to Baghdad,^[20] possibly making a pilgrimage on the way. If so, he did not stay long in the Hijaz. Tabari had a private income from his father while he was still living and then the inheritance.^[21] He took money for teaching. Among Tabari's students was Ibn al-Mughallis, who was also a student of Tabari's own teacher Muhammad bin Dawud al-Zahiri; Ibn al-Mughallis lavished Tabari with almost excessive praise.^[22][23] He never took a government or a judicial position.^[24]

Quran Tabari

Tabari was some fifty years old when al-Mu'tadid became caliph. He was well past seventy in the year his History, as we know it, was published. During the intervening years, he was famous, if somewhat controversial, personality. Among the figures of his age, he had access to sources of information equal to anyone, except, perhaps, those who were directly connected with decision making within the government. Most, if not all, the materials for the histories of al-Mu'tadid, al-Muktafi, and the early years of al-Muqtadir were collected by him about the time the reported events took place. His accounts are as authentic as one can expect from that period.^[25]

Tabari's final years were marked by conflict with the Hanbalite followers of Al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al-Barbahari, a student of the students of Ibn Hanbal. Tabari was known for his view that Hanbalism was not a legitimate school of thought, as Ibn Hanbal was a compiler of traditions and not a proper jurist.^[26] The Hanbalites of Baghdad would often stone Tabari's house, escalating the persecution to the point where Abbasid authorities had to subdue them by force.^[27] The Baghdad chief of police tried to organize a debate between Tabari and the Hanbalites to settle their differences. While Tabari accepted, the Hanbalites did not show up, instead coming later to pelt his house with stones again. The constant threat of violence from the Hanbalites hung over Tabari's head for the rest of his life.^[28]

Tabari finally died on Monday, February 17, 923.^[28] Abbasid authorities actually buried Tabari in secret due to fears of mob violence by the Hanbalites.^[29] Regardless, Tabari was remembered positively by contemporaries such as Ibn Duraid,^[28] and the Hanbalites were condemned by Abbasid authorities in their entirety due to persecution of opponents roughly a decade later.^[30]


sumber dari: en.wikipedia.org

Al-Majusi -wikipedia

'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi (died 982-994), also known as Masoudi, or Latinized as Haly Abbas, was a Persian physician and psychologist most famous for the Kitab al-Maliki or Complete Book of the Medical Art, his textbook on medicine and psychology.

He was born in Ahvaz, southwestern Persia, and studied under Shaikh Abu Maher Musa ibn Sayyār. He was considered one of the three greatest physicians of the Eastern Caliphate of his time, and became physician to Emir 'Adud al-Daula Fana Khusraw of the Buwayhid dynasty, who ruled from 949 CE to 983 CE. The Emir was a great patron of medicine, and founded a hospital at Shiraz in Persia, and in 981 the Al-Adudi Hospital in Baghdad, where al-Majusi worked. His ancestors were Zoroastrian, but he himself was a Muslim. His reverence for Allah is evident in the worship and styles of expression throughout his work.^[

Al-Majusi is best known for his Kitāb Kāmil aṣ-Ṣināʿa aṭ-Ṭibbiyya (كتاب كامل الصناعة الطبية "Complete Book of the Medical Art"), later called The Complete Art of Medicine,^[1] which he completed circa 980. He dedicated the work to the Emir, and it became known as the Kitāb al-Malakiyy (كتاب الملكي, "Royal Book", or in Latin Liber Regalis or Regalis Dispositio). The book is a more systematic and concise encyclopedia than Razi's Hawi, and more practical than Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, by which it was superseded.^{[citation needed]}
The Maliki is divided into 20 discourses, of which the first ten deal with theory and the second ten with the practice of medicine. Some examples of topics covered are dietetics and materia medica, a rudimentary conception of the capillary system, interesting clinical observations, and proof of the motions of the womb during parturition (for example, the child does not come out, but is pushed out).
In Europe a partial Latin translation was adapted as the Liber pantegni by Constantinus Africanus (c. 1087), which became a founding text of the Schola Medica Salernitana in Salerno. A complete and much better translation was made in 1127 by Stephen of Antioch, and this was printed in Venice in 1492 and 1523. Haly's book of medicine is cited in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.

Medical ethics and research methodology[edit]

The work emphisized the need for a healthy relationship between doctors and patients, and the importance of medical ethics. It also provided details on a scientific methodology that is similar to modern biomedical research.^[2]

Neuroscience and psychology[edit]

Neuroscience and psychology were discussed in The Complete Art of Medicine. He described the neuroanatomy, neurobiology and neurophysiology of the brain and first discussed various mental disorders, including sleeping sickness, memory loss, hypochondriasis, coma, hot and cold meningitis, vertigo epilepsy, love sickness, and hemiplegia. He placed more emphasis on preserving health through diet and natural healing than he did on medication or drugs, which he considered a last resort.^[1]

Psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine[edit]

Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi was a pioneer in psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine. He described how the physiological and psychological aspects of a patient can have an effect on one another in his Complete Book of the Medical Art. He found a correlation between patients who were physically and mentally healthy and those who were physically and mentally unhealthy, and concluded that "joy and contentment can bring a better living status to many who would otherwise be sick and miserable due to unnecessary sadness, fear, worry and anxiety."^[3


sumber dari: en.wikipedia.org

Digitalized Arabic manuscripts on the web

São Paulo – Arab manuscripts that were inaccessible to the public have been digitalized and made available on the Internet to whoever wants to view them. A project financed by the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) made it possible for three institutions to develop the method and put on the Internet documents dated from the 14th to 20th. The search may be in English or Arabic.

After two year’s work, researchers at Wellcome Library, in London, King’s College London and the Library of Alexandrina, in Egypt, created in July this year, a site with 500 Arab manuscripts and 75,000 images. Most of the documents discuss an area in which the Arabs advanced much from the end of the Roman Empire to the 15th century: medicine.

Viewers may see texts by doctor and philosopher Ibn Sinna (Avicenna), comments by other philosophers, like Averroes, medical poems by Avicenna and even philosophical and scientific works by anonymous researchers.

The digital consultancy director at the Department of Digital Humanities at King’s College London, Simon Tanner believes that these studies helped medicine evolve. He said they may be reused at any moment. After all, according to Tanner, laboratories frequently research ancient documents in search of names of herbs used in the past or of a “route” that may result in the discovery of new drugs and cures to diseases.

Press Release
Manuscript from the 14th century may be viewed

“Our modern world of medicine can be better understood when we understand the importance of the Arabic world to medicine. From the fall of Rome until the European Renaissance of the 15th century, the Islamic world was the centre of medical knowledge. Arabic medicine was once the most advanced in the world (many Arabic medicinal terms--drug, syrup, alcohol, alkali, etc.--remain in western languages) and these manuscripts hold important historical and scientific insights into that period,” said Tanner.

The 500 digitalized manuscripts belong to Wellcome Library. According to the institution, digitalizing documents is part of a greater project and comprehends other collections it owns. Some of the Arab documents include medical manuscripts that belonged to Lebanese physician and medical historian Sami Ibrahim Haddad (1890-1957) and include the “Haddad Manuscript Collection”. The collection also includes texts by Islamic authors like Al-Majusi, Ibn Sina and even Jewish authors who wrote in Arabic.


sumber dari: anba.com.br

médicale et chirurgicale

L'œuvre principale, médicale et chirurgicale, de al-Zahrawi, et la plus célèbre qui lui valut l'essentielle de sa notoriété, est intitulé , "Al-Tasrif liman Aegiza an al-Ta'lif" - La pratique -, une encyclopédie de 1500 pages divisée en 30 livres, dont le dernier consacré entièrement à la chirurgie est le plus fameux, et celui qui eut le plus d'influence sur tout le Moyen Âge. Cent cinquante ans plus tard il sera traduit en latin par Gérard de Crémone, (1114-1187), il n'y eut pas moins de 10 éditions dans cette langue entre 1497 et 1544, avant d'être traduit en français, en hébreu, en anglais et en provençal. Tous les chirurgiens médiévaux, postérieurs à Abulcasis, tels Roger de Parme, Guillaume de Salicet, Henri de Mondeville, Guy de Chauliac ont utilisé son œuvre, (Guy de Chauliac , par exemple, le cite 175 fois ! ). L'ouvrage sera publié à Venise en 1497, à Bâle en 1541 et à Oxford en 1778.









sumber dari: medarus.org

Hamdard Medicus

Among the pioneers who encouraged, promoted and reshaped the development of medicine in medieval Islam was the physician, therapist and medical educator, Abu Zakariya Yahya Ibn (or b. meaning son of) Masawayh (Latin Mesue, the Elder). He was born about 162 H/778, in the renowned city of Jundisabur (Arabic Junday Sabur) or JundaShapur (soldier’s camp of Shapur I), the founder of the Sassanid dynasty (reigned, 240-272). In 266, Shapur captured and devastated the Syrian capital city of Antioch; and about four years later, he defeated, captured Emperor Valerian (253-60) and ruthlessly slew him thus putting an end to an impending fall of the Western Roman Empire.¹

This monarch shortly founded Jundi-Shapur and called it: “Veh Antiok Shapur”; meaning, “Shapur’s Antioch had become by far the better one.” The city was soon populated thereafter by Greco-Roman refugees and other ethnic groups to become a sizable and significant center of learning and culture. It is still considered a recognized site at al-Ahwaz in Khuzistan province, in south-west Iran. The grandson, Shapur II (309-79) was an ambitious and enterprising leader who lived long as a great monarch, although he apparently persecuted both Jews and Christians alike.

However, the great grandson, Khosrow I Anushirvan (Arabic Kisra Anushirwan, 531-79), the just, was by far more tolerant and liberal than his predecessors. During his unprejudiced reign, the Sassanian Dynasty reached the apogee of its prosperity, prestige and power. Being so highly reputed reformer, administrator and patron of science and literature, this great monarch established an academy for medicine, natural history and philosophy that flourished for over three centuries. It then operated privately, more or less, under the administration and supervision of the Nestorian Christians, who taught these disciplines in their mother tongue, the Syriac.²

A scion of this multilingual learned community, most of whom invariably knew Greek, Persian, Syriac and Arabic was a certain man, whose name was Masawayh. Of his ancestral lineage, we know almost nothing except that he adhered to the Nestorian faith of Christianity. And here at Jundisabur, together with the medical academy, the Nestorians established a prototype hospital or a bimarastan (a bimar-khanah, an infirmary, as an abode or house for the healing of the sick). From the 7th to the 10th centuries, this institute won excellent reputation far and wide in the region.

Here in its pharmacy shop, connected with the hospital, enrolled young Masawayh, an apprentice with no formal education whatsoever. He started his career by digging crude drugs, mixing them together in prescribed formulas to prepare from them all kinds of medications and recipes for the patients at the hospital: those who came to it within the outpatient clinics, or among the clients in the hospital wards.

However, through natural inclination, in time, the brilliant, industrious and persevering Masawayh became acquainted with all the familiar remedial agents at the shop, or those obtained from herbalists (attarin). He gradually developed familiarity and understanding in choosing the best kinds of drugs, and rejecting the inferior or the adulterated. He also gained the know-how and the skill regarding the dispensing of these remedies adequately. Through trials, experiences and accurate observations, also as an oculist, he excelled in learning all about the eye, its ailments and treatment, just as he did well in the art of the apothecary, the compounding and management of preparing prescriptions, and all kinds of medicinal recipes.³

sumber dari: berberian22.tripod.com

Lost History

I have just finished reading "Lost History by Michael Hamilton Morgan" which enlightened me about the contributions of islamic thinkers to what scientific discoveries are oday. This is a must read for all kinds of people be it from Europe,Middle East  and other places to learn about the Islamic Empires contribution to science mathematics,astronomy etc.

 

Lost HistoryThe Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, and Artists Written by http://www.randomhouse.com/acmart/catalog/results.pperl?authorid=74588 - Michael H. Morgan National Geographic | Hardcover | June 2007 978-1-4262-0092-2 (1-4262-0092-7) | 320 pages $26.00/$32.00 (Canada) ABOUT THIS BOOK In an era when the relationship between Islam and the West seems mainly defined by mistrust and misunderstanding, we often forget that for centuries Muslim civilization was the envy of the world. Essential reading for any student seeking to understand the major role played by the early Muslim world in influencing modern society, Lost History fills an important void. Written by an award-winning author and former diplomat with extensive experience in the Muslim world, it provides new insight not only into Islam's historic achievements but also the ancient resentments that fuel today's bitter conflicts. Michael Hamilton Morgan reveals how early Muslim advancements in science and culture lay the cornerstones of the European Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and modern Western society. As he chronicles the Golden Ages of Islam, beginning in 570 a.d. with the birth of Muhammad, and resonating today, he introduces scholars like Ibn Al-Haytham, Ibn Sina, Al-Tusi, Al-Khwarizmi, and Omar Khayyam, towering figures who revolutionized the mathematics, astronomy, and medicine of their time and paved the way for Newton, Copernicus, and many others. And he reminds us that inspired leaders from Muhammad to Suleiman the Magnificent and beyond championed religious tolerance, encouraged intellectual inquiry, and sponsored artistic, architectural, and literary works that still dazzle us with their brilliance. Lost History finally affords pioneering leaders with the proper credit and respect they so richly deserve

sumber dari: allempires.com

Biologists, neuroscientists, and psychologists

Further information: Islamic psychological thought

• Ibn Sirin (654–728), author of work on dreams and dream interpretation^[22]
• Al-Kindi (Alkindus), pioneer of psychotherapy and music therapy^[23]
• Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, pioneer of psychiatry, clinical psychiatry and clinical psychology^[24]
• Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi, pioneer of mental health,^[25] medical psychology, cognitive psychology, cognitive therapy, psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine^[26]
• Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), pioneer of social psychology and consciousness studies^[27]
• Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (Haly Abbas), pioneer of neuroanatomy, neurobiology and neurophysiology^[27]
• Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), pioneer of neurosurgery^[28]
• Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), founder of experimental psychology, psychophysics, phenomenology and visual perception^[29]
• Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, pioneer of reaction time^[30]
• Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā), pioneer of neuropsychiatry,^[31] thought experiment, self-awareness and self-consciousness^[32]
• Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), pioneer of neurology and neuropharmacology^[28]
• Averroes, pioneer of Parkinson’s disease^[28]
• Ibn Tufail, pioneer of tabula rasa and nature versus nurture^[33]
• Mir Sajad, Neuroscientist and pioneer in neuroinflammation and neurogenesis.

sumber dari: kufarooq95.wordpress.com

Anatomi dan Fisiologi

Dalam anatomi dan fisiologi, doktor pertama yang menyabari teori humorisme Galen' adalah Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) dalam Doubts berkaitan Galen pada abad ke-10. Dia mengkritik teori Galen bahawa badan memiliki empat "humor" (bahan cecair) yang berlainan, yang seimbangnya adalah kunci pada kesihatan dan sebuah tubuh yang mempunyai badan yang berdarjah biasa. Razi adalah yang pertama untuk membuktikan teori ini salah dengan menggunakan sebuah eksperimen. Dia menjalankan suatu eksperimen yang mana akan merosakkan sistem ini dengan memasuki suatu cecair dengan berlainan darjah ke dalam badan menyebabkan suatu ketambahan atau kekurangan panas badan, yang mewakili darjah pada cecair yang khusus itu. Razi menyatakan bahawa suatu minuman panas akan memanaskan badan ke suatu darjah yang lebih tinggi daripada darjah asalnya, oleh itu minuman akan trigger jawapan dari badan, daripada mengirimkan kepanasan atau kesejukan sendirinya pada itu. Garisan kritikan ini adalah refutasi bereksperimen berkefahaman yang pertama pada teori Galen pada humor dan teori elemen klasik empat Aristotle pada mana ia telah dilatarkan. Eksperimen kimia Razi sendiri bercadangkan kualiti-kualiti ciri, seperti "keminyakan" dan "kesulfuran", atau inflammability dan salinity, yang tidak diadakan penjelasan oleh bahagian elemen tradisional api, air, tanah dan udara.^[40]

Anatomi dan fisiologi bereksperimen

Dari: Mansur ibn Ilyas: Tashrīḥ-i badan-i insān. تشريح بدن انسان. Manuskrip, ca. 1450, U.S. National Library of Medicine.

Sumbangan Ibnu Sina dalam bidang fisiologi termasuk pengenalan kepada ujikaji kuantitif dan bersistematik kedalam bidang fisiologi dalam Qanun Perubatan (c. 1020).^[25] Sumbangan Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) dalam bidang fisiologi (physiology) dan anatomi termasuk penjelasannya yang betul mengenai proses penglihatan dan persepsi penglihatan bagi kali pertama dalam Buku Optik, diterbitkan pada 1021.^[35]

Ciptaan lain yang diperkenalkan oleh pakar perubatan Muslim dalam bidang phisiologi pada masa ini adalah penggunaan ujian pada haiwan^[35] dan bedah siasat manusia.^[46]

Suymbangan Avicenna pada fisiologi termasuk pengenalan eksperimentasi dan kauntifikasi bersistem ke dalam kajian fisiologi dalam Qanun Perubatan (c. 1020).^[25] Sumabangan Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) pada anatomi dan fisiologi termasuk penjelasan benar pada proses kelihatan dan tangkapan visual untuk kali pertama dalam Buku Optik, diterbitkan pada 1021.^[35] Inovasi lain diperkenalkan oleh doktor Islam pada bidang fisiologi pada masa itu termasuk kegunaan pengujian haiwan^[35] dan pembelahan manusia.^[46]
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091-1161) adalah salah seorang doktor awal yang telah menjalankan pembelahan manusia dan autopsi postmortem. Dia membukti bahawa scabies penyakit kulit telah disebabkan oleh seekor parasit, suatu penemuan yang merosakkan teori humorisme disokong oleh Hippocrates and Galen. Pengalihan parasit dari badan pesakit tidak termasuk pencaharan, perdarahan, atau apa-apa rawatan tradisional lain berkaitan dengan empat humor.^[43]

Pada abad ke-12, doktor kepada Saladin, al-Shayzari^[46] dan Ibn Jumay, juga adalah di kalangan yang terawal untuk menyertai pembelahan manusia, dan mereka melakukan rayuan eksplisit untuk doktor lain untuk melakukannya juga. Sewaktu musim kemarau di Mesir pada 1200, Abd-el-latif memerhatikan dan memeriksa sebilangan besar rangka, dan dia mendapati bahawa Galen tidak benar mengenai pembentukan tulang pada bahagian bawah rahang dan sacrum.^[48]

Halaman pembukaan suatu karya oleh Ibn al-Nafis, bapa fisiologi kejalanan darah. Ini mungkin adalah suatu salinan yang dibuatkan di India sewaktu abad ke-17 dan ke-18.

Fisiologi dan anatomi kitaran darat

Ibn al-Nafis, bapa fisiologi kardiovaskular,^[51] adalah salah seorang lagi penyokong awal bagi pembelahan manusia.^[49] Pada 1242, dia adalah yang pertama untuk menjelaskan kitaran pulmonari,^[52] coronary circulation,^[53] dan capillary circulation,^[54] yang membentuk asasnya sistem kardiovaskular, yang mana dia dianggap salah seorang ahli fisiologi yang terhebat dalam sejarah.^[55] Penjelasan orang Eropah yang pertama mengenai pulmonari kardiovaskular muncul hanya beberapa abad kemudian, oleh Michael Servetus pada 1553 dan William Harvey pada 1628. Ibn al-Nafis juga menjelaskan konsep terawal pada metabolisme,^[56] dan mengembangkan sistem Nafisian pada anatomi, fisiologi, dan psikologi yang baru untuk menggantikan doktrin Avicenna dan Galen, sementara mengutuk banyak kesilapan teori mereka mengeai empat humor, pulsasi,^[57] tulang, otot, usus kecil, organ deria, hempedu canals, esofagus, perut, dan anatomi hampir setiap bahagian lain pada badan manusia.^[49]

Doktor Arab Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267), juga berasal dari Damsyik, menulis Pengumpulan perbincangan berkaitan dengan lima puluh soalan berpsikologi dan perubatan, yang mana dia menolak teori empat humor yang disokong oleh Galen dan Hippocrates, menemukan bahawa badan dan pengekalannya terpulang secara eksklusifnya pada darah, menolak gagasan Galen bahawa wanita dapat menghasilkan sperma, dan menemukan bahawa gerakan arteri tidak tergantung pada gerakan jantung, bahawa jantung adalah organ pertama untuk membentuk dalam sebuah badan fetus (daripada otak seperti yang didakwa oleh Hippocrates), dan bahawa tulang yang membentuk tengkorak dapat bertumbuh ke dalam tumor. Dia juga memberi nasihat bahawa bagi kejadian demam yang lampau, seorang pesakit seharusnya tidak dikeluarkan dari hospital.^[58]

Pada abad ke-15, Tashrih al-badan (Anatomi badan) ditulis oleh Mansur ibn Ilyas mengandungi tatarajah komprehensif pada struktur badan, saraf dan sistem kardiovaskular.^[59]

Pulsologi dan sfigmologi

Doktor Islam adalah perintis pada pulsologi dan sfigmologi. Pada zaman silam, Galen dan juga doktor Cina secara silap mempercayai bahawa adanya jenis unik pada pulse pada setiap organ badan dan setiap penyakit.^[60] Galen juga secara silap mempercayai bahawa "setiap bahagian arteri berdenyut serentak" dan mosi denyutan adalah oleh kerana mosi asli (arteri mengembang dan mengecut secara asli) ditentangkan dengan mosi paksaan (jantung menyebabkan arteri untuk sama ada mengembang atau mengecut).^[61] Penjelasan betul pertama pada kedenyutan diberikan oleh ahli fizik Muslim.
Avicenna adalah seorang perintis sfigmologi selepas dia menghaluskan teori Galen pada pulse dan menemukan pada yang berikut dalam Qanun Perubatan:^[60]

"Setiap denyutan pulse terdiri dari dua gerakan dan dua hentian. Oleh itu, perkembangan : hentian : kontraksi : hentian. [...] Pulse adalah suatu gerakan dalam jantung dan arteri ... yang mengambil bentuk perkembangan dan kontraksi alternatif."

Avicenna juga merintiskan pencapaian moden pada memeriksaan kedenyutan melalui pemeriksaan pergelangan tangan, yang masih diamalkan dalam zaman moden. Alasannya untuk memilih pergelangan tangan sebagai tempat unggul ada oleh kerana ia secara mudah diadakan dan pesakit tidak perlu merasa tertekan pada pendedahan tubuhnya. Terjemahan bahasa Latin pada Qanun kepunyaannya juga meletakkan asas untuk reka cipa lain pada sfigmograf.^[62]

Ibn al-Nafis, dalam Pengulasan pada Anatomi dalam Qanun Avicenna kepunyaanya, menolak keseluruhannya teori Galen pada kedenyutan selepas penemuannya pada peredaran paru-paru. Dia mengembangkan teori Nafis tersendirinya pada kedenyutan slepas menemukan bahawa kedenyutan adalah akibatnya mosi asli dan paksaan, dan bahawa "mosi paksaan seharusnya mengecutkan arteri disebabkan oleh pengembangan heart, dan mosi asli seharusnya dijadikan pengembangan arteri." Dia juga menyatakan bahawa "arteri dan jantung tidak mengembang dan mengecut pada waktu yang sama, tetapi daripada itu yang mengecut ketika yang satu lagi mengembang" dan sebaliknya. Dia juga mengakui bahawa tujuan denyut adalah untuk menolong disperse menyuraikan darah dari jantung ke bahagian lain badan. Ibn al-Nafis secara ringkas meringkaskan teori barunya pada denyutan:^[63]

"Tujuan asas pengembangan dan pengecutan jantung adalah menyerapkan udara sejuk dan membuangkan pembaziran roh dan udara panas; meskipun, ventrikel jantung adalah lebar. Tambahan, apabila ia mengambang ia tidak mungkin untuknya untuk menyerap udara sehingga ia penuh, oleh kerana itu akan merosakkan temperament roh, bahannya dan texture, dan juga temperament jantung. Oleh itu, jantungnya diperlukan dipaksa untuk menyelesaikan isinya dengan menyerapkan roh."

sumber dari: ms.wikipedia.org