Kitab Tibb al-Mashayikh

Selain itu, dia juga membuat buku tentang penyakit gangguan tidur (sleep disorder). Dia juga menyusun sebuah risalah dalam kasus angka kematian. Dia juga menulis buku tentang pediatrik (ilmu kesehatan anak anak), demam, penyakit seksual, pengobatan bagi si miskin. Risalah ini diringkas oleh Gerrit Bos menjadi "Ibn al-Jazzar on Medicine for the Poor and Destitute", dalam Journal of the American Oriental Society.

Dia juga menulis tentang terapeutik (nilai pengobatan), vaticum, coryza, penyakit perut, penyakit kusta, obatobatan terpisah, obat-obatan campuran dan ini ditambahkan dalam bukunya dalam wilayah keilmuan lain, misalnya sejarah binatang dan literatur.

Ibnu al-Jazzar juga memiliki beberapa buku tentang geriatric medicine atau (ilmu kedokteran yang mempelajari tentang orang tua) dan kesehatan lansia (Kitab Tibb al-Mashayikh). Dengan demikian, betapa besarnya sumbangsih al-Jazzar bagi pengembangan dunia kedokteran modern.she/de/taq  



sumber dari: republika.co.id

Kitab al-Nisyan wa-Uruq Taqwiyat al-Dhakira

Buku tentang demam dan penyakit seksual karya Ibnu al-Jazzar juga telah diedit dan diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Inggris. Karyanya tersebut diterjemehkan oleh Gerrit Bos dengan judul Ibn al-Jazzar on Sexual Diseases: A Critical Edition of “Zad al-Musafir wa-Qut al-Hadir”: Provisions for the Traveller and Nourishment for the Sedentary.

Buku tersebut juga sangat berpengaruh di Eropa. Pada abad ke-11 M, buku itu diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Yunani. Pada abad ke-12 M, di Toledo, buku itu kemudian diterjemahkan dari bahasa Arab ke bahasa Latin oleh seorang penerjemah, bernama Lombard.

“Setelah diterima ke dalam apa yang disebut Articella atau Ars medicinae, ringkasan yang dibuat dari buku medis (karya Ibnu al-Jazzar), telah banyak digunakan di sekolah-sekolah medis (Salerno, Montpellier), dan di perguruan tinggi (Bologna, Paris, Oxford), ”  jelas Dugat dalam karyanya Etudes sur le Traitc de Medecine d’ Abou Dja’far ahmad, Intitule: Zad al-Mozafir.

Ibnu al-Jazzar juga menulis sebuah risalah dalam pengobatan sifat pelupa berjudul Risalah fi al-Nisyan wa-‘Ilajih dan tips memperkuat daya ingat lewat Kitab al-Nisyan wa-Uruq Taqwiyat al-Dhakira. Kedua karya Ibnu al-Jazzar itu telah diedit dan diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Inggris. Hal itu diungkapkan oleh Gerrit Bos dalam karyanya Ibn al-Jazzar, Risala fi Alnisyan (Treatise on Forgetfulness).



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Treatise on Simple Drugs

Ibnu al-Jazzar merupakan seorang penulis yang produktif dalam bidang kedokteran. Kitab-kitab yang ditulisnya begitu terkenal dan berpengaruh dalam dunia kedokteran Barat di abad pertengahan. Kitabnya al-Adwiya al-Mufrada (Treatise on Simple Drugs) telah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Yunani, Latin dan Ibrani dan dicetak beberapa kali.

Karyanya menjadi sangat populer setelah diterjemahkan oleh Constantine, seorang ilmuwan asal Afrika, dengan judul Liber de Gradibus. Tak heran, jika kitab karya al-Jazzar itu menjadi begitu penting dalam dunia kedokteran Barat. Sejak mengenal kitab ini, dunia kedokteran Barat mulai mengenal pharmacopeia.

Karyanya yang lain adalah Tibb al-Fuqara‘ wa Al-Masakin (Medicine for the Poor). Kitab karya sang dokter agung itu telah dianalisis oleh Ed S Catahier dan JacquaI-Micheau dalam bentuk artikel ilmiah. Karyanya Ibnu al-Jazzar itu, kata Catahier, menjadi sebuah literatur yang populer khususnya selama abad pertengahan.

Rocha Pereira dalam karyanya Obras Medicas de Pedro Hispanokarya, mengatakan, karya Ibnu al-Jazzar ini juga dilirik oleh Petrus dari Spanyol, seorang dokter dan filsuf yang menjadi Paus dengan nama John XXI.

Karya Ibnu al-Jazzar lainnya yang berpengaruh adalah Zad al-Musafir wa-Qut al-Hadir (Provisions for the Traveller and the Nourishment of the Settled). Kitab Zad Al-Musafir merupakan karyanya yang terbesar. Yang saat itu, sebagian besar ditulis masih dalam bentuk manuskrip (naskah).



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Kashf al-Zunun II

Ibnu al-Jazzar memulai praktiknya sebagai dokter di tanah kelahirannya Qairawan. Dengan penuh ketekunan dan ketelatenan, ia mengobati penduduk asli di wilayah tersebut. Dia melewati kehidupan yang keras. Selama masa hidupnya, dia mengabdikan dirinya untuk mempelajari dan mempraktikkan ilmu pengobatan atau kedokteran.

Setiap musim panas, ia melakukan perjalanan menjelajahi al-Munastir, di pesisir pantai Mediterania. Selama hidupnya, ia dikenal sebagai seorang dokter yang memiliki sifat yang baik. Meski profesinya sebagai seorang dokter begitu terhormat dan terpandang, namun dia tak silau dengan posisi dan jabatan yang menjanjikan.

Berbeda dengan dokter lainnya yang berlomba mencari posisi sebagai dokter istana, ia justru lebih memilih melayani masyarakat biasa. Ibnu al-Jazzar sangat menyadari posisinya sebagai dokter, dia melakukan pengobatan dengan profesional. Dia melakukan praktik medis dengan menerima dan memeriksa pasiennya selama jam konsultasi, khususnya analisis masalah urin pasien.

Hebatnya, ia melayani pasiennya dengan penuh pengabdian. Setelah melakukan pemeriksaan, Ibn al-Jazzar memberikan obat-obatan yang diperlukan bagi pasiennya secara gratis. Sikap mulia ini yang membuat al-Jazzar selalu dikenang. Sayangnya, jejak kehidupan al-Jazzar tak terekam sejarah dengan baik.

Tak ada catatan yang pasti mengenai tahun kelahiran dan wafatnya sang dokter agung dari benua Afrika Utara itu. “Banyak kebingungan masalah tahun kelahirannya (Ibnu al-Jazzar),” ujar Hajji Khalifah dalam karyanya bertajuk Kashf al-Zunun II.

Hajji menuturkan, ada tiga versi mengenai tahun yang sempat disebut-sebut sebagai tahun wafatnya Ibnu Al-Jazzar ini. Pertama, sebelum tahun 400H/1010M, kedua tahun 400 H/1010 M, dan ketiga setelah tahun ini. Sementara itu, Brockelmann (GI, 238), menyebutkan, al-Jazzar tutup usia pada tahun 395H/1004 M. Ilmuwan lainnya, seperti Idris mengadopsi pendapat Brockelmann soal tahun wafatnya al-Jazzar.

Sedangkan Ibnu Juljul, merujuk pada karyanya bertajuk Tabaqat al-Atibba menyebutkan Ibnu Al-Jazzar meninggal pada 987 M. Sementara, Ibnu ‘Idhari dalam karyanya al-Bayan al-Mughrib I, mengatakan wafatnya Ibnu Al-Jazzar sekitar tahun 369 H/979M-980M. Namun, baru-baru ini ada bukti yang menunjukkan bahwa ia meninggal di kota kelahirannya di Qayrawan, sekitar tahun 979-980 M (369 H).



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Dokter Agung dari Benua Afrika

Algazir. Begitulah dunia Barat mengenal dokter Muslim legendaris dari Afrika Utara ini. Sejatinya, ia bernama lengkap Abu Ja’far Ahmad ibnu Ibrahim ibnu Abi Khalid Ibnu al-Jazzar al-Qairawani atau akrab disapa Al-Jazzar. Ia adalah dokter berpengaruh dan sangat populer di abad ke-10 M. Ibnu al-Jazzar adalah dokter kelahiran Qairawan (sekarang Tunisia) pada 898 M. Ia begitu terkenal berkat sederet karya yang ditulisnya mengenai pengobatan Islam. Dalam sejumlah literatur disebutkan bahwa Ibnu al-Jazzar berasal dari keluarga yang juga berkecimpung di bidang kedokteran.

Ibnu Juljul dalam karyanya Tabaqat al-atibba’ dan Ibnu Abi Usaybi’a dalam karyanya ‘Uyun al-Anba’ mengungkapkan keluarga al-Jazzar berkiprah dalam bidang pengobatan. Tak heran, jika sejak kecil al-Jazzar juga sudah tertarik pada bidang medis.

Jacquart-Micheau dalam karyanya La Medecine Arahe mengungkapkan bahwa al-Jazzar merupakan murid seorang filsuf dan dokter Yahudi terkenal bernama Ishaq bin Sulayman al-Isra’ili (243H/855M- 343H/955M). Dari al-Isra’ili inilah al-Jazzar menimba ilmu kedokteran.

Sang guru juga sangat dikenal di dunia kedokteran Barat. Karya-karya al-Isra’ili telah diterjemahkan dalam bahasa Latin seperti al-Hummayat (tentang Demam) and al-Bawl (tentang Urine).



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Royal Dragon (Draco regius)

We obtained an adult Royal Dragon from the menagerie of the Prince of Cairo. The dragon was an adult male, approximately 16 hands (5.8 chi) at the shoulder with a wingspan of 99 hands (36.1 chi). An ophthalmic examination was performed using the protocol established in El-Mohtar et al. Upon examination, the eyes appeared normal. The dragon was held in the Metafaunal Annex at the University of the Nile’s Agricultural College. Live sheep were provided weekly.

The dragon was anesthetized using antipyronic ether. Due to the fiery exhalations of the Royal Dragon, use of inflammable gas is not recommended (see ibn-Hayyan et al.). After a surgical plane of anesthesia was achieved, we introduced three drops of fractionated Dryadic serum into the subspectacular space by means of a hollow needle. This displaced the cornea posterior to the spectacle, ensuring that the cornea would not be damaged during surgery.


Scissors of Galen were used to excise the spectacle. Afterwards, transparent shields were placed over both eyes and secured to the 3rd and 4th cranial horns using silver chain impressed with the name of the Most Holy (See ben-Solomon, “On Bindings”). We discontinued the antipyronic ether and ventilated the dragon using bellows (as described by ibn-Al Jazzar) until the dragon respired independently. Due to the extreme heat of the Royal Dragon’s bodily effluents, we did not administer anti-putrifactional agents (see Eltahir’s description of surgery performed on salamanders).

sumber dari: madscientistjournal.org

Sippy Cup

This ceramic cup with a drinking spout is from the cargo of an Arab or Indian dhow that sank in the Strait of Malacca between 826 and 850 CE. The ship, which contained thousands of other ceramic pieces, was probably bound for the Persian Gulf. The cup was made at the Changshan ceramic production center, whose kilns produced export wares during the Tang dynasty (618-906 CE). Such cups may have been used for infants in wealthy Persian or Arab households. Pediatric treatises by physicians Ibn al-Jazzar (898-980) and al-Baladi (fl. 979) recommend special cups used for weaning infants. The cup is decorated with a splash pattern in green glaze. The fish design in the bottom of the cup might have amused a child, who could only see it after drinking all the liquid.



sumber dari: chnm.gmu.edu

Ibn Al-jazzar On Fevers

This is the first critical edition and translation of the first Islamic medical work on fevers. Zad almusafir is perhaps the most influential handbook in the history of medical science, and Gerrit Bos's provides invaluable insight into the medical theory of Book Seven.

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Sexual Diseases and Their Treatment

Ibn Al-Jazzar on Sexual Diseases and Their Treatment Bk. 6 : A Critical Edition of Zad Al-Musafir Wa-Gut Al-Hadir: Provisions for the Traveller and Nourishment for the Sedentary

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Forgetfulness and Its Treatment

Ibn Al-Jazzar on Forgetfulness and Its Treatment. First published in 1995. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.

sumber dari: routledgementalhealth.com

use of drugs in the treatment

What is Taught: The discovery of the scientific use of drugs in the treatment of specific diseases was made by Paracelsus, the Swiss-born physician, during the 16th century. He is also credited with being the first to use practical experience as a determining factor in the treatment of patients rather than relying exclusively on the works of the ancients.


What Should be Taught: Ar-Razi, Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, az -Zahrawi, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al- Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians mastered the science of drug therapy for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. In fact, this concept was entirely their invention. The word ‘drug' is derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive. Muslim physicians were the first to criticize ancient medical theories and practices. Ar-Razi devoted an entire book as a critique of Galen's anatomy. The works of Paracelsus are insignificant compared to the vast volumes of medical writings and original findings accomplished by the medical giants of Islam.



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well known in Islamic Spain

Ahmad Ibn  al-Jazzar (d.984) practiced medicine in Qayrawan, Tunisia. In his apothecary shop in  the city of  Manastir, he kept syrups, electuaries and other reparations. He was well known in Islamic Spain during the rule of Caliph al-Hakam (961-976).

His medical compendium Za’ad al-Musafir comprised of Seven treatises, and divided into two parts. His book Kitab al-I’timad al-adwiya alMufrida was on the pharmacological effects of tried and useful simple drugs. It was translated into Latin, Hebrew and Greek and exerted a profound influence on medical education in Europe.



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geriatric medicine and health of elderly

Ibn Al Jazzar major work was Zād al-Musāfir.

He also had some books on geriatric medicine and health of elderly (Kitāb Ṭibb al-Mashāyikh)^[2] or (Ṭibb al-Mashāyikh wa-ḥifẓ ṣiḥḥatihim).^[3] Also a book on sleep disorders and another one on forgetfulness and how to strengthen memory (Kitāb al-Nisyān wa-Ṭuruq Taqwiyat al-Dhākira)^[4][5] and a Treatise on causes of mortality (Risāla fī Asbāb al-Wafāh).^[2]


Also he had other books on pediatrics, fevers, sexual disorders, medicine of the poor,^[6] therapeutics, vaticum, coryza, stomach disorders, leprosy, separate drugs, compound drugs, and this is in addition to his books in other areas of science, e.g., history, animals and literature.


sumber dari: en.wikipedia.org

Zad Al Mussafir (The Viaticum)

Ibn Al Jazzar wrote a number of books. They deal with grammar, history, jurisprudence, prosody, etc. Many of these books, quoted by different authors are lost. The most important book of Ibn Al Jazzar is Zad Al Mussafir (The Viaticum). Translated into Latin, Greek and Hebrew, it has been copied, recopied, and printed in France and Italy in the sixteenth century. It was adopted and popularized in Europe as a book for a classical education in medicine. This book is a compilation as the Canon of Avicenna, a mixture of medicine and philosophy. Avicenna was not a medical practitioner, but Ibn Al Jazzar was, and his book was useful.

It is a medicine handbook from head to feet, designed for clinical teaching. We find neither anatomy nor philosophy. There are lessons written after the course, as noted by the author in the conclusion of his book. This can be seen by the repetitions found in them. The author names the disease, lists the known symptoms, gives the treatment and sometime indicates the prognosis. He often cited in reference the names of foreign authors, as if to give importance to his subject, or for intellectual integrity to justify the loans.

As al-Razi Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, preceded him by a few decades and as Ibn Al Jazzar has adopted in the Viaticum the same style as "El Hawi" (The Continent: who voluntarily abstain from carnal pleasures) of al-Razi but more elaborate and more concise, we can ask yourself if he did not have very early this book in hands. This is unlikely, because in "The Viaticum" he does not separate measles from smallpox, which was the innovation of al-Razi. And among the physicians whom he often refers such Galen, Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Refus, Tridon, Fergorius, Aristotle and Ibn Suleiman Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, he does not mention al-Razi. Books of these authors must have existed in Tunisia at that time. Tunisia was in constant contact with Rome, Athens and Byzantium by the sheer size of its economy, and the position of Tunisia in the midst of the Mediterranean Sea.


We can not speak of Ibn Al Jazzar without mentioning the translator of his books: Constantine the African.



sumber dari: en.wikipedia.org

an Andalusian physician

We know the biography of Ibn Al Jazzar only by an Andalusian physician Ibn Joljol and he only knew it by his student Ibn Bariq, who went to Qayrawan, Tunisia to learn medicine. The writers of Tabakates or "classes of famous men" generally considered writing only for Faquih, the benefactors and the saints. The information we have about Ibn Al Jazzar are second hand, they are either incomplete, or controversial.
“Ahmed Ben Jaafar Ben Brahim Ibn Al Jazzar” was born in Qayrawan around 895, and died around 979. He lived about 84 years. Married he would not let childs. He had learned the Koran at kuttab in his youth, grammar, theology, fiqh and history at the mosque Okba Ibn Nafaa. He had learned medicine from his father and his uncle that were physicians, and from Ishaq Ibn Suleiman (Isaac Ben Salomon), a physician in Qayrawan.

The existence of a hospital in Kairouan is not proven. Teaching is provided by the doctors themselves at home. This is the case of Ibn Al Jazzar. He said himself in the conclusion of his book "Zad Al Mussafir (viaticum), he would be available at home for his students at the end of its daily consultation.

The teaching was oral. The paper was not widely spread in the ninth century, the scrolls were rare and expensive. Ibn Al Jazzar had a library rich of 25 quintals, as it seems. This figure seems exaggerated. The quintal at the time amounted to 50 kg according to some and 25 kg according to others. These books were not all about medicine, but also of other disciplines.

Ibn Al Jazzar was calm and quiet. He did not attend funerals or weddings, and did not take part in festivities. He had great respect ofhimself. He avoided compromises, did not attend the court and members of the regime, thus taking on Fouqaha example of the time. This may explain the fact that when he treated the son of Cadhi Al Nooman, he refused to receive as a gift a costume of 300 mithkals. It is also by respect of the Emir that he had not realized his desire to visit Andalusia, the relationship between the two governments of Mahdia and Cordoba were tense. It is also by respect for the Emir that he did not begin his pilgrimage to Mecca in spite of his strong desire to do so. The Emir was Shia and for ceremonial purposes and policies, he creates barriers to pilgrims and forced them to pass through Mahdia and pay a toll.


But he went every Friday to Mahdia to the uncle of the Emir El Moez Lidin Allah, which he was bound by friendship. During the heat of the summer, he went to Monastir and lived in a ribat with valiant soldiers who watched the boundaries. Ibn Al Jazzar preparing himself the medicines and had an assistant serve them who stood in the vestibule of the house, and who collected the fees of the consultations. We do not know the amount of a consultation or a visit at his home, but we know that at his death Ibn Al Jazzar left 24000 gold dinars. The Aghlabid dinar weighed 4.20 grams.



sumber dari: en.wikipedia.org

automatic control systems

The theory of automatic control systems is an idea closely related to feedback concept. A system is a combination of components that act together and perform certain objectives. In a feedback system the output signal is fed back in order to increase or reduce the input signal.

Although the feedback concept, which is lying in the foundation of dynamic systems, has been perceived relative recently (at the end of the 19th century), it is known that the idea has been understood and applied correctly since the ancient times. In the engineering, the aim of control is to guide the system to a desired direction or kept constant at a certain value. A feedback control system is one which tends to maintain a prescribed relationship between the output and the reference input by comparing these and using the difference as the means of control. Thus, in an automatic control system, the variable to be controlled is first measured, secondly compared against a reference value and at least the difference applied to the system input, in order to influence the system in a desired manner. In the block diagram of an automatic control system, the controlled system take place in the forward path and the measuring device of the controlled variable take place in the feedback loop. A disturbance is a signal that tends to affect adversely the value of the output of a system.

To differentiate an automatic control system, realized and used unconsciously during centuries from the open loop control system, one has to check the existing system for the feedback characteristic. The oldest automatic control systems technically mindfully designed and tested for their operational merit, date back to the Hellenistic era. The oldest applications are flow rate control in water clocks.

Scientific advancement, which reached its peak in the Hellenistic age, lost its luster in the palaces of Byzantium; the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad once more let lit the science torch. Muhammad, Hassan and Ahmad known as Benu Musa or Sons of Musa bin Shakir of Khurasan, are very famous in the history of technology. They played an important role in the advancement of mathematical sciences during the reign of Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun (813-833 A.D) and the succeeding caliphs. Ahmad's interest in technology might have led them to write the book titled Kitab al Hiyal (Book of Mechanical Devices) (850 A.D). The manuscript in the Ahmed III Library at Topkapi Palace is almost a complete copy (A 3474) and includes magical vessels, water jets, oil lamps, a densimeter, a bellow, and a lifting device. This science of 'ingenious devices' and 'ingenious automata' created by the use of matter, water and air is known as 'ilm al-alat al ruhaniyet': science of pneumatic devices. According to Akfani, "the science of pneumatic devices deals with the construction of various devices based on the principle of the 'horror of vacuum'. The purpose is to educate the mind while designing these systems that deal with measured cups, siphons and other elements."


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Programmable humanoid robot

Al-Jazari is credited with creating the earliest forms of a programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Al-Jazari's automaton was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.



sumber dari: english.turkcebilgi.com

Pollution

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. 

The Blacksmith Institute issues annually a list of the world’s worst polluted places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees are located in Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru, Russia, Ukraine and Zambia.

In the late industrial age, the term overpollution was common, representing a view that was both critical of industrial pollution, but likewise accepted a certain degree of pollution as nominal industrial practice.

Ancient Cultures

Air pollution has always been with us. In quote Soot found on ceilings of prehistoric caves provides evidence of the high levels of pollution associated with inadequate ventilation of open fires. The forging of metals appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman and Chinese metal production.

Official Acknowledgement

The earliest known writings concerned with pollution were written between the 9th and 13th centuries by Persian scientists such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), Ibn Sina(Avicenna), and al-Masihi or were Arabic medical treatises written by physicians such as al-Kindi (Alkindus), Qusta ibn Luqa (Costa ben Luca), Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air contamination, water contamination, soil contamination, solid waste mishandling, and environmental assessments of certain localities.

King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. This same city also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858, which led to construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward.

It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. Chicago and Cincinnatiwere the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the Department of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.

sumber dari: blog.articlealley.com

Flexojoint 2

In spite of differences of religion and language, a single scientific culture can be found throughout the Mediterranean region from at least the period of the Roman Empire until the early modern period. This culture was developed by the Greeks (who themselves owed much to the Egyptians, the Mesopotamian civilisations and the Indians), partly committed to Latin in Antiquity, but more comprehensively translated into Syriac and Arabic from the 7^th century onwards; from the late 10^th century onwards the slender threads of ancient science in Latin began to be woven into the rich fabric of Arabic science, so that, by the mid-13^th century, Latin culture in Europe enjoyed the same level of sophistication as Arabic culture in the Islamic world and relied on the same authorities: the Greek classics of arithmetic (Nicomachus), geometry (Euclid), astronomy (Ptolemy), astrology (again Ptolemy, but also Dorotheus and Vettius Valens), and medicine (Hippocrates and Galen), as well as the Arabic masters in arithmetic, algebra and trigonometry (al-Khwarizmi and Abu Kamil), in astronomy (again al-Khwarizmi, al-Battani, and az-Zarqali), astrology (Abu Ma‘shar and numerous others) and medicine (Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Ishaq al-Isra’ili, Ibn al-Jazzar, az-Zahrawi, and, again, numerous others). Moreover, through the spreading of Islam to Persia, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent and beyond, the same scientific culture embraced an area far wider than the Mediterranean basin.

Thus, a work written by an astronomer in Morocco in the 13^th century can be found copied in a manuscript in Hyderabad. A ‘philosopher’ at the court of Frederick II in Sicily, originating from Antioch, was trained in medicine and philosophy in Mosul and Baghdad, and served the Turkish Seljuks of Rum and the Armenian regent before coming to Western Europe. A scholar writing a philosophical work in Greek, also in Sicily in the 13^th century, could use a Latin translation of a commentary on Aristotle by the Arabic Ibn Rushd, etc.



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Religion and Science are Always in Agreement

Materialists, in an attempt to conceal their defeat by science, often take recourse through various propaganda methods. Foremost of them is the cliché of "the conflict between science and religion", commonly employed by materialist publications. These sources cover factitious stories, suggesting that throughout history religion has always been against science, and that science can progress only if religion is ruled out.

A quick look at the history of science, however, will be sufficient to point out the falsehood of this claim.
When we look at the history of Islam, we see that science was introduced into the Middle East along with the Qur'an. Pre-Islamic Arabs believed in all sorts of superstitions and hearsay, and conducted no investigation of the universe or nature. With Islam, this community became civilized, and, beginning to hold knowledge in high regard, and by observing the commands of the Qur'an, began to examine the world around them. Not only Arabs, but many other nations, such as the Iranians, Turks, and North Africans, became enlightened after embracing Islam. The use of reason and observation commanded in the Qur'an gave rise to a great civilization in the 9th and 10th centuries. Many Muslim scientists living during that period made significant discoveries in a number of disciplines, such as astronomy, mathematics, geometry, and medicine.

The importance given to knowledge in Islam is also obvious in the ahadith of our Prophet, God's Messenger, peace be upon him. There are numerous ahadith encouraging Muslims to seek knowledge and disseminate it. Some of them read:

One who proceeds on a path in the pursuit of knowledge, God makes him proceed therewith on a path to the Garden (Paradise)… The learned are the heirs of the prophets, for the prophets did not leave behind a legacy of wealth but that of knowledge. So whoever partakes of it derives a plenteous benefit.44
A believer is never satiated with gainful knowledge; he goes acquiring it till his death and entry into Paradise.45
It is narrated that the Prophet (pbuh) used to say after the dawn prayer, "O God, I ask You for beneficial knowledge, acceptable action, and good provision." 46

Playing an important role in the transfer of scientific knowledge to Europe, as well as producing many Muslim scientists of her own, Andalusia was a crucible of revolutionary discoveries and scientific progress, particularly in the field of medicine. Muslim physicians did not specialize in a single subject, but conducted studies in a wide range of fields, including pharmacology, surgery, ophthalmology, gynecology, physiology, bacteriology and hygiene. One of the most noted Andalusian physicians was Ibn Juljul (?-992), who conducted extensive studies on medical herbs, and produced works on the history of medicine and medical herbs. Another distinguished physician of the time was Abu Ja'far Ibn al-Jazzar (?-1009) from Tunisia, who mastered the science of drug therapy for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases, and authored more than 30 books. Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (1162-1231) is known for his studies in anatomy. He corrected the mistakes made in the past in anatomical studies of many bones of the body, such as the jaw and chest bone. Baghdadi's book, Al-Ifade ve'l Itibar, was re-published in 1788, and translated into Latin, German and French. His book Makalatun fi'l Havas covered the five senses.

Only those of His servants with knowledge have fear of God. God is Almighty, Ever-Forgiving. (Surah Fatir: 28)

God bears witness that there is no deity but Him, as do the angels and the people of knowledge, upholding justice. There is no deity but Him, the Almighty, the All-Wise. (Surat Al Imran: 18)

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